Propaganda is defined as ‘information,
ideas, or rumours deliberately spread widely to help or harm a person, group,
movement, institution, nation, etc.’ (Dictionary.com, undated). This resonates
with the ideas presented in comic books; heroes, representing national ideals,
triumph over evil, representing the enemy. This is specifically portrayed in
Marvel Comics’, and its former monikers Timely Publications and Atlas Comics’,
characters ‘Captain America’ and ‘Black Widow’.
Comic books have been a popular medium
of entertainment since the early 20th century. In 1935 these
publications evolved from reprinting newspaper comic strips to printing
original content with original characters. 1938 is regarded as the start of
‘The Golden Age of Comic Books’ (History Detectives, 2014), a year later the Second
World War began, and superheroes took centre stage. Along with them came
stories of patriotism and righteousness. On the surface, these stories are
simple entertainment aimed at young people, heroes like ‘Captain America’
fighting for justice. Below the surface however, comics were being used as a
propaganda machine aimed at the young. Never is this more evident than in the
changing portrayal of the enemy between the Second World War and the Cold War.
Heroes went from fighting the fascist threat to fighting communism and their
former ally, the USSR.
Comics can be traced back as far as
the early 19th century, with publications such as ‘The Looking-Glass’
in 1820s Scotland, described as ‘an early
example of topical graphic journalism’ (Grove, 2017, 24, cited in Fotheringham,
2017). From the birth of comics, we can see that they have a close relationship
with world events. In 1929 the Belgian cartoonist Hergé began creating ‘Tintin
in the Land of the Soviets’ as a weekly cartoon strip for the ‘Le Vingtième
Siècle’. ‘Tintin in the Land of the Soviets’ was included in the newspaper’s
children’s supplement and detailed the fictional reporter ‘Tintin’ and his
ordeals in the USSR as he tried to expose the country’s secrets. ‘Tintin in the
Land of the Soviets’ is a prominent example of anti-communist propaganda, a
publication so popular that the collected volume is still in print today. The
publication had ‘pedagogic aims’ (Farr, 2007, 55) and was created as
anti-communist propaganda, following the death of Lenin and the beginning of
Stalin’s control of the Soviet Union. When the Second World War began ‘sales of
comic books increased markedly’, ‘they were cheap, portable and had
inspirational, patriotic stories of good triumphing over evil’ (History
Detectives, 2014). The world continued to see comic books mirroring real-world
events and views. As the threat of fascism rose, the focus on communism shifted
as the East and the West became unlikely allies to combat a new common threat.
The
American government began encouraging political messages in popular culture
during the Second World War. ‘Roosevelt encouraged official rhetoric in popular
culture, thereby communicating political messages in a form that the American
public were already predisposed to be receptive to’ (Murray,
2000). The American public, and American armed forces, were ‘predisposed to be
receptive to’ comic
books as by 1941, 25 million comics were being sold in the United States every
month (Onyon, 2018). Comic books were a common commodity in the United States,
to the US Army as ‘they were cheap, easy to carry, and the comic itself did not
require a college education to read’ (Onyon, 2018).
Comic
books such as ‘America’s Best Comics’ featured covers with heroes representing
the USSR, USA, United Kingdom and China, all fighting together against Nazi
Germany and the Axis powers (America’s Best Comics, 1944). After the Second
World War the image of threat shifted back to communism as the Cold War began. In
the USA propaganda appeared warning of the dangers of communism, such as Fred
Schwarz’s ‘Communism: America’s Mortal Enemy’ (Schwarz, 1961), an
anti-communist text which was delivered to the National Education Program in
Arkansas in 1956.
One major view of communism portrayed
through comic books of the time is that communists had betrayed the Allied
Forces after the Second World War. In 1954, Atlas Comics, predecessor to
Marvel, revived their standalone ‘Captain America’ comic book series under a
new subheading, ‘Captain America… Commie Smasher!’. This revival showed a real
change in the view of the enemy that was being fed to the American public, with
the first story in this issue being titled ‘The Betrayers’. ‘Over the course of
the 1940s and 1950s, the characters most associated with World War II were
either retired or readapted to changing times’ (Scott, 2014). This change may
have come in response to the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, only four
months after the original publication had stopped printing. By 1953 the Korean
War was over, and the result had not been the reunification of a democratic
Korea that the USA backed South Korean forces had aimed for. In the first page
of this comic the reader is presented with the line ‘Communism was spreading
its ugly, grasping tentacles all over the world.’ This view of communism and
the USSR as the enemy, even as monstrous and grotesque, was being displayed to their
audience. This was an audience which covered a large amount of people, though
mostly children. In the Second World War ‘children used the comic book to keep
up to date with what was happening through most of the war’ (Onyon, 2018) and
this likely continued into the Cold War. Conventional news sources are
considered to be aimed solely at adults, with presenters such as Edward Murrow
who also tackled the issue of the Red Scare in 1954 (Musser, undated).
These publications would have been
aimed at young men, as suggested by Atlas Comic’s other publication at the time
‘Young Men’, which also featured characters such as ‘Captain America’. These
people would have likely been too young to have fought in the Second World War
and would have been raised by veterans of the war. During the Second World War
‘the writers and publishers of these iconic figures were using their medium to
promote unity and American ideologies’ (Stephens, 2011). This continued into
the early stages of the cold war.
Though sales in comic books dropped
and many super heroes disappeared from the shelves, the ones who remained
continued to symbolise American ideals. In ‘Captain America Comics’ issue 76,
the reader is fed a plot-line where ‘Captain America’ and his sidekick ‘Bucky’
re-join the army, with ‘Captain America stating ‘Bucky, there’s a war going on…
a war of spies! We’re going to join in on that war… as soldiers in the army!’ (Marvel,
1954). Here, the reader is presented with heroes of the Second World War,
re-joining the army as a Private and a Company Mascot. This could be
interpreted as propaganda for the US Army, with heroes taking on low-level
roles, like normal people. The references to the ‘war of spies’ may have also
acted to spread fear within young people, likening the events in the comic to the
messages they were being fed through other forms of propaganda, such as the
comic book ‘Is this Tomorrow’ (Catechetical Guild
Educational Society, 1947). ‘Is This Tomorrow’ was produced ‘To make you
think!’ providing readers with figures of the amount of known Communist Party
members in the USA, also insinuating ‘hundreds of additional members’ were
working as ‘fifth columnists’ to undermine the government.
This was being combined with the
anti-communist messages being fed to children through their schooling. ‘As the
Cold War represented an ideological battle in which the United States and the
Soviet Union sought to impose their respective worldviews domestically and
internationally, indoctrination through education became a legitimized practice
adopted by both nations’ (Hope, 2011). This combination would have made it
difficult for young people in the USA to escape propaganda and find bare facts,
their schooling and their entertainment were being used to ingrain ideals. This
would have been effective for the US government at the time, who would have
been aiming to minimise the amount of US citizens adopting communist ideas.
Another view portrayed in ‘Captain
America’ comics is that anything unamerican is a threat. ‘Captain America’ was
created as the image of American patriotism, ‘tailor made to support the
overall war effort’ (Onyon, 2018) in the Second World War. This image remained
largely unchanged into the Cold War. ‘Captain America’ was created as a hero to
the American people and an inspiration, his costume and shield were a ‘patriotic
red, white, and blue uniform and the ideals of American nationalism’ (Onyon,
2018). In contrast the views of communism in ‘Captain America… Commie Smasher!’
were the opposite of American, communists were presented as cowards, hiding
behind others in plain sight or as monsters.
‘Captain America Comics’ issue 78,
published in September 1941, introduces a new antagonist, ‘Electro’. ‘Electro’
is a glowing, green monster bearing the hammer and sickle of the USSR on his
chest. It is never revealed whether ‘Electro’ is human, or simply a weapon
created by the USSR. He is presented as a powerful threat; however, he lacks
the intelligence of ‘Captain America’ and is easily outsmarted. The character
design is opposite to that of ‘Captain America’, inhuman looking and visually
unappealing. This may have been a direct choice from the artists, attempting to
embody the American view of communism, ‘the red enemies of freedom’ (Marvel,
1954). In the story, ‘Electro’ subdues ‘Bucky’, a 12-year-old child, and
threatens to kill him. This represents an unhuman act, an act without
compassion. The instinct to protect a child and keep them from danger is
regarded as being natural, ‘compassion is a natural and automatic response that
has ensured our survival’ (Seppälä, 2013). Presenting communism as unhuman and
uncaring would have made it almost impossible for the American public to find
any way of empathising with ‘Electro’ and therefore communism. This could be
seen as misinformation and propaganda as many countries which fell to communism
did so for entirely human reasons.
However, ‘Captain America Comics’ did also
play on the idea that the followers of communism were poorly educated and to be
pitied. In issue 77 ‘Captain America’ is tasked with taking medicine to a
Korean prisoner of war camp, where communist plotters have poisoned their own
soldiers in order to ‘accuse the U.N. of mistreating them’ (Marvel, 1954). Here
the American audience is presented with communists betraying their own people
in order to spread misinformation about the U.N. and democracy. ‘Captain
America’ is successful in curing the poisoned soldiers and remarks that he
wishes the soldiers could be taught ‘the real truth’, that ‘the United Nations
are the only ones who can cure what ails them… with freedom and democracy.’
Here the reader is being presented with the view that the Korean soldiers
should be pitied for following communism. Communism is compared to poison, but
the soldiers are portrayed as too unintelligent to know that the real enemies
are ‘their own masters’. Here we see a differing view of communism in comic
propaganda, the view that the poor were being exploited by communist leaders.
Never in the comic is the possibility that people may follow communism due to
perceived ideals discussed.
The followers of communism are only
ever portrayed in one of two ways, as monstrous plotters or poor uneducated
fools who have been misguided or brainwashed by communism. These comics fail to
explore the possibility that many followers of communism were discontent with
their lives and revolution occurred due to shared discontent. For example, the
main supporters of the communist revolution in China were poor farmers,
amounting to around 85 percent of the population (AllAbout Philosophy,
undated). These people were not faceless monsters out to destroy democracy like
‘Electro’, these people followed communist ideals as a last resort to better
themselves.
Another view of communism portrayed by
Marvel, is as alluring and dangerous. On April 10th, 1959, Marvel Comics
published ‘Tales of Suspense’ issue 52 and the first appearance of Black Widow
(Marvel, 1964). In later editions and the current Marvel canon, ‘Black Widow’
is a hero and a member of ‘The Avengers’ alongside ‘Captain America’. But in
1959 she was ‘the gorgeous new menace’, a communist spy attempting to undermine
‘Iron Man’. She acts as a strategist and the mastermind behind the plot, she
also uses her beauty to trick ‘Iron Man’, referring to him as a ‘gullible
fool’. In recent years the character has been developed, revealing that she was
brainwashed from an early age, however in this first issue this is not
revealed. Without any back story ‘Black Widow’ represents an alluring beauty,
perhaps symbolic of the attractions of communism. However, ‘Black Widow’ is
ultimately unsuccessful in her attempt to undermine ‘Iron Man’, who takes pity
on her. This may also be symbolic of the American view that communism would
fail and that the countries that fall to communism were to be pitied, not
punished and that the real threat were the people behind the movement.
In ‘Tales of Suspense’ issue 53,
‘Black Widow’ makes her return, once again as the antagonist to ‘Iron Man’. However,
here the reader is presented with ‘Black Widow’ as the sole plotter in her
attack. ‘Black Widow’ uses her charms to once again trick ‘Tony Stark’, who is
‘taken by a pair of limpid eyes’ (Marvel, 1964), even after ‘Black Widow’ was
revealed as a communist spy. Here it could be interpreted that acting alone,
‘Black Widow’ is an intelligent and menacing threat. This could be reflective
of the fear in America at the time of communist spies and insurgents as
portrayed in ‘Is This Tomorrow’ in 1947. ‘Is This Tomorrow’ theorises that
communists could infiltrate society and alter perceptions (Catechetical Guild
Educational Society, 1947). This is similar to the way in which ‘Black Widow’
infiltrates the high society life of ‘Tony Stark’ and uses her charm to lure
him into her plot. ‘Black Widow’ is the opposite of the monstrous and often
dim-witted communists presented in ‘Captain America Comics’. ‘Black Widow’ is
ultimately defeated after other communist henchmen intrude on her plans. She is
presented as far more intelligent than her male counterparts whose actions lead
her to a face-to-face confrontation of ‘Iron Man’. This shows communism as
poorly organised, but also intelligent. This is a representation of communism
as a real threat, but a flawed threat. In the final frames of the issue, ‘Black
Widow’ is shown to be pondering how ‘Iron Man’ can risk his life to save his
enemies, ‘what manner of men are these Americans, who can risk their lives for
their enemies??’ (Marvel, 1964). This may have been presenting democracy as
superior due to the implied inherent compassion. Alternatively, this may have
been indicative to her future change of allegiances and therefore the
superiority of democracy due to all that it offers.
It could be said that comics as
propaganda were not as effective following the Second World War, as there were
no active wars involving US personnel until 1950. Between 1945 and 1950, the
number of active US Army personnel fell from over 8 million to under 600,000
(Infoplease, undated). During the Second World War, superheroes
were presented as supporting the war effort, fighting the fascist and Axis
threat. Many of them openly advocating the selling of war bonds. By 1955 the
number of active personnel had once again risen to over 1 million, perhaps as a
reaction to the Korean War. The Korean War ended in 1954 and between 1955 and
1960 numbers of military personnel had dropped again. Once the threat of
fascism had been vanquished, heroes like ‘Captain America’ had lost their enemy
and were retired. It could be interpreted that as the heroes were retired after
the war, young people were no longer being presented with an active threat for
the early years of the Cold War. Communism was represented by many faces, each
with differing views. However, in ‘Captain America Comics’ never featured one
of the main communist figures, Joseph Stalin. Stalin’s successor, Georgy
Malenkov was also never featured in ‘Captain America Comics’ and wasn’t
mentioned in any Marvel comic until 1994 (Marvel Database, undated).
Comparatively, the first issue of ‘Captain America Comics’ showed ‘Captain
America’ punching Hitler. This would have given readers an image for the threat
of fascism and a face synonymous with it. However, the Cold War era issues of
‘Captain America Comics’ don’t feature any recognisable figures on their
covers, instead opting for generic characters in communist themed outfits. Without
this image or face representing threat, people may not have been driven to
volunteer for the war effort. ‘Captain America’ relied on the character trait
that he was an American hero. His character was an average, perhaps even
scrawny, American man, but when the Second World war was raging, he became the
symbol of America and freedom. When there was no single threat to present as
the enemy, only an ideology, ‘Captain America’ could not have acted as
effective propaganda.
In conclusion, whilst communism is
presented as a threat in Marvel Comics, and its predecessors, between 1940 and
1970, it was too inconsistent to be an effective form of propaganda. Compared
to the depiction of fascism as a threat in the 1930s and 1940s, the image of
communism lacked a face, a single person for the readership to see as the
enemy. Since comic books are a highly visual medium of propaganda, it may have
been that without vivid and definite images of the threat the producers were
unable to get the same reaction as they had in the years before. As superheroes
were retired following the Second World War, popular comics shifted to
different genres. ‘Exemplifying this shift, Kirby and Joe Simon, his old
collaborator, re-established themselves in the post-war comics’ field by
creating Young Romance #1’ (Scott,
2014). Jack Kirby and Joe Simon were to co-creators of ‘Captain America’, and
as Cord Scott states in ‘Comics and Conflict’, this move from the creators of
perhaps one of the most patriotic superheroes exemplifies the change in
attitudes towards comics following the Second World War. The American public
may have been looking for more light-hearted entertainment following the war,
and perhaps ‘Captain America’ simply moving onto a new threat was not what the
public were looking for after the atrocities the world had endured. Similarly,
it may have been the mixed messages presented about communism that caused these
comic books to be ineffective propaganda. ‘Black Widow’ was presented as smart
and alluring, an actual threat to superheroes and indeed the American way of life.
However, along with her poorly educated counterparts, ‘Black Widow’ was too
easily defeated and never posed the same threat of communism which was being
portrayed in other means of propaganda. Ultimately, sales in comics fell
drastically following the Second World War. These factors combined to create a
climate in which Marvel Comics were unable to produce the effective propaganda
of previous years.
3139 Words
Bibliography:
Farr, M. (2007) Tintin
and Co. London: Egmont.
Fotheringham, A. (2017) Drawn to History of Comics. Evening Times, 4 July, 24.
